Introduction
For a long
time we know that there are a multitude of proteins (molecule chains
made of amino acids) which are
capable to connect directly with distinct regions of the DNA (molecule chains
made of nucleotides), either to
stimulate the start of a gene reading process (transcription)
or to block it. So, it should be readily conceivable that molecules made of
nucleotides could also be capable to connect directly with proteins.
In the
nineties, with this concept in mind, scientists started to identify a large
number of molecules made of DNA or RNA nucleotide sequences, which they ended
to name aptamers (1,2). I don’t know
if you have already read the last article of this blog. There, I tried to compare
the way researchers find new drugs with some kind of fishing or filtering technique.
For aptamers, we can use the same concept, since the current technology used to
identify them, known by the acronym SELEX,
also uses a filtering method to select the best candidate molecules.
Like those proteins capable to bind directly and specifically some target nucleotide
sequences of the DNA in the cell nucleus, aptamers are also very specific for
their own targets. You could select any part
of the target as bait for aptamers. In the case of a receptor enzyme such as
our familiar fibroblast growth factor
receptor type 3 (FGFR3), this bait could be the external part of the
enzyme, or a transmembrane segment or
the ATP pockets (figure) we have
already reviewed about in previous articles.
This
special property, to have a single, specific target, makes aptamers a potential
strategy for the treatment of diseases or conditions where a protein is not
working properly. Can you imagine that? Let’s give an example of an aptamer
already in use in the clinic.
An aptamer in action
Macular degeneration is a condition that affects the
eyes of aged people and can lead to blindness. One of the mechanisms thought to
drive the disorder is an excess of vascular proliferation (creation of an
excessive number of new blood vessels in the retina). The production of new
vessels is managed by the activation of a receptor in the cell membrane of
cells present in the retina called vascular
endothelial growth factor receptor (VEGFR), and of course, the molecule
which binds it is a VEGF (also called ligand).
Since the
discovery of the aptamers, many have been developed for therapeutic purposes
and several are now being explored in clinical trials, mostly in cancer. Cancer is truly a huge challenge and a
lot of effort has been given to find new therapies to beat it. This includes targets
such as cell membrane receptors like the epithelial
growth factor receptor (EGFR), another enzyme located across the cell
membrane in the same way FGFR3 is. EGFR excessive functioning is often found in
breast cancer (and in other kinds, too), and today some of the most effective
therapies for breast cancer are directed against EGFRs.
Controlling the amount
of signals from the antenna
Before we
continue our flight over the aptamers, it will be good to understand how the
cell manages the many, many active receptors located in the cell membrane. This will be important for us to understand
what we could expect about one of the possible ways an aptamer targeting FGFR3
could work.
As I said,
there are hundreds of different receptors installed across the cell membrane,
all functioning like chemical antennas to help the cell respond to what is
going on in the environment. From immune defense to apoptosis, an incredible number of cell interactions have already
been described guided by those antennas.
However, these
antennas are not permanent. As for any biological process to keep life on
balance, there are a number of control systems that regulate the action span of
these receptors. When a receptor enzyme such as FGFR3 is activated by a FGF it
forms a molecule complex that starts to signal to its specific chemical
cascades (reviewed here), and is
attracted to the interior of the cell.
Then, this complex is spotted by
proteins such as ubiquitin,
which will tag it and drive it to degradation systems, where the proteins are
dismantled. By using these control systems, the cell is able to regulate for
how long a receptor can conduct signals from abroad to the cell nucleus. Do you
see where we are going?
Aptamers designed to
bind EGFR2 (HERB2) causes its accelerated degradation and reduce cancer growth.
In a recent
study, researchers have identified a couple of aptamers specific for EGFR2.
EGFR2 is one of the four receptor enzymes of the EGFR family and is an important
driver of some forms of breast and other cancers. Blocking or disabling EGFR2
causes impairment of tumor growth and reduces the recurring rate in
appropriately treated cases. In this study, Mahlknecht G et al. (3) performed several tests with the aptamers
they identified and found that they worked by forcing the receptor to
degradation without being activated. This, in turn, resulted in inhibition of
tumor growth in the models the researchers used. The aptamers tested did not
show major concerns in terms of toxicity, which is also important information.
In summary,
this study gives evidence that an aptamer having a target located outside the
cell is able to block its function and causes the planned effect (here, tumor
growth inhibition). The same strategy could be applied for FGFRs.
A strategy using aptamers for achondroplasia could have advantages:
- Aptamers are small molecules, probably free to transit in the growth plate and reach the chondrocyte;
- Aptamers are very specific, making low the risk of having off-target effects (when a drug causes effects due to interactions with a non-intended target);
- Aptamers use to have a low toxicity risk profile.
Concluding
In the end
of 2012, in a conversation with an expert in drug development and venture
capital investment, I mentioned the aptamers as a strategy to be explored as potential
therapy for achondroplasia, but this expert was skeptical about them. My
opinion is that we don’t know. Since I learned about aptamers I have been making random searches in medical databases such as Pubmed and never found a study testing an aptamer against FGFR3. Thus, here, the
challenge is again to find an investigator with open mind, and with appropriate
resources, to explore the possibility of aptamers being used to treat
achondroplasia.
References
1. Tuerk C, Gold L. Systematic evolution of ligands by
exponential enrichment: RNA ligands to bacteriophage T4 DNA polymerase. Science
1990; 249 (4968): 505-10.
2. Ellington AD, Szostak JW. In vitro selection of RNA
molecules that bind specific ligands. Nature 1990; 346(6287):818–22.
3. Mahlknecht G et al. Aptamer to ErbB-2/HER2 enhances
degradation of the target and inhibits tumorigenic growth. PNAS 2013; 110
(20): 8170-8175.